24/12/08- Medieval Encounters: Conflict and Coexistence 2

Medieval Encounters: Conflict and Coexistence 2

Intellectual Development


Arabic translation movement (8-10th Centuries)
(Early Abbasid)

Latin translation movement (12-13th Centuries)
(Southern-Western Europe)


Caliph al-Mansur (r. 754-775)

Caliph Harun ar-Rashid (r. 786-809)

Caliph Al-Ma’mun (r. 813-833)




Channels for the transmission of Ancient knowledge:

Alexandria, Antioch, Tarsus, Harran (Sabians)

Sasanian (Zoroastrian) centers of Hellenistic learning
İn Persia

Syriac speaking Biblical centers:
Edessa (Urfa); Nisibis (Nizip); Mosul

Platonian idealism

Aristotelian logic and dialectic argument

Hikmah (philosophical wisdom)

Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (d. 1037)

“Kalām” (theological discussion)

Madrasa (Islamic college) 11th Century


Novel institutions of higher learning (12th century):

University / “universitas” (Bologna, Paris)

College (Sorbonne, Oxford)

Scholasticism

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1275)

22/12/08- Medieval Encounters: Conflict and Coexistence

Medieval Encounters: Conflict and Coexistence

Medieval
Euro-Mediterranean World

“cultural symbiosis”

Damascus Great Mosque (8th Century)

Al-Andalus

“convivencia”
mozarabs
mudejar

The Euro-Mediterranean World c. 1100



Roger II, Norman King



Capella Palatina (Norman Sicily)



Roger II, Ceremonial Cloak (Norman Sicily)

19/12/09- Rise of Islam 4

RISE OF ISLAM 4

Non-Muslim Communities in the Early Islamic World

Ahl al-dhimma (“Protected People”): dhimmi
-obliged to pay poll tax (jizya) and land tax (kharaj)
-allowed to practice and organize own religion
-dhimmi women allowed to marry Muslim men (but not vice-versa); children would be Muslim
-conversion of Muslims not permitted
-allowed to hold positions in administration
-generally held to be inferior in social standing to Muslims

Who were the ahl al-dhimma?

• Ahl al-kitab (“People of the Book”)

1. Jews (Banu Isra’il, Yahud)
-isra’iliyyat (stories about Hebrew prophets and Biblical figures)

2. Christians (Nasara / Nasrani: “from Nazareth”): Monophysites, Chalcedonians, Nestorians
-monasticism
-transmission of ancient Greek learning

Extension of ahl al-kitab (and dhimmi) status:
1. Zoroastrians (Majus – “Magians”)
-dualist religion
-written scriptures (Avesta)
2. Sabians (Sabi’un)
a. Judeo-Christian baptising sects esp. in Iraq
b. Pagan star-worshippers of Harran

Manicheaism (zandaqa; zindiq):
-not included among the ahl al-dhimma
-dualist teachings of 3rd c. prophet Mani
-zandaqa came to mean “heresy”
-repressed and persecuted

Page from a Qur’an manuscript, probably Iraq, 9th c., parchment

Kufic script

Translation movement:
-began under Abbasid caliph al-Mansur
-continued for some 200 years
-inspired by Sasanian imperial ideology
-Bayt al-hikma (“House of Wisdom”) in Baghdad
-initially translations from Pahlavi (Middle Persian)
-later translations from Greek

Subjects covered by the Translation Movement (750-950):
-Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music)
-Entire field of Aristotelian philosophy
-metaphysics -ethics -logic -physics -zoology -botany
-Health sciences (medicine, pharmacology, veterinary science)
-Occult sciences: (magic, alchemy, astrology)

Revival of the Persian literary in the 10th c.:
Samanid dynasty (819-1005):
-Iranian aristocratic family
-establish a state in Eastern Iran and Central Asia

• capital Bukhara

-active sponsorship of learning and New Persian literature (esp. poetry)
-translations from Arabic into Persian
-Shahnama (“Book of Kings”)
– Persian national epic of the pre-Islamic Iranian kings by the poet Firdawsi: highly influential text for later Iranian and Turkish societies.

17/12/08- Rise of Islam 3

RISE OF ISLAM 3

Political Fragmentation and Disunity in the Islamic World




Abbasid Revolution 749-50
Al-Andalus: first breakaway province: Umayyad state

Political fragmentation of the Islamic world in the 9th c.

Khariji movement:
-begins with opposition to ‘Ali regarding the decision to arbitrate over the punishment of ‘Uthman’s assassins
-responsible for the assassination of ‘Ali in 661
-first definite dissent and division in the Islamic community
(kharijis: “those who went out”)
-emphasis on egalitarian and morally puritannical leadership

Ibadi movement:
-later development from the Kharijis
-formed groups of opposition to the Abbasids in N. Africa among native Berber people
Rustamid dynasty (761-909)
-anti-Abbasid independent state
-conceived as a “correction” to past and present Islamic states

Sect: a dissenting or schismatic religious group, sometimes considered extreme or heretical by opponents… (sectarian, sectarianism)
Shi‘a: party or faction
Shi‘at ‘Ali: party (supporters) of ‘Ali and ‘Alids
Shi‘i: a member of Shi‘at ‘Ali
‘Alid: a descendent of ‘Ali

Genealogy of the Shi‘i imamate

Principles of the Shi‘i imamate as developed in the 8th c.:

-divinely-guided

-sovereign in religious and political terms

-keeper of authority and secret knowledge for the interpretation of the Qur’an, hadith, law

-free from sin and error (infallibility)

-explicity designated by his predecessor (nass)

-a necessary institution

Divisions within Shi’ism:

- “Fiver” / Zaydi
- “Sevener”/Isma‘ili
- “Twelver” / Imami

Fatimids:
-‘Ubayd Allah claims to be the manifestation (zuhur) of the Hidden Imam :took the title al-Mahdi
-909: Declaration of the Fatimid Caliphate (title: amir al-mu’minin) in N. Africa: ideological and military challenge to the Abbasids
-969: Conquest of Egypt

ANNOUNCEMENT FOR OBJECTION

Dear all,

The objection date is arranged as below for those who want to see their midterm papers,

19th of December, Friday
between 15:00-17:00
at Cultural Heritage Museum

15/12/08- Rise of Islam 2

RISE OF ISLAM 2

Succession to the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad (632)—possible choices:
- ‘Ali (cousin and son-in-law) ?
-Ansar (supporters from Medina) ?
-Muhajirun (emigrants from Mecca) ?

The Rightly-Guided Caliphs (“Rashidun”):

Abu Bakr (632-34)
‘Umar (634-44)
‘Uthman (644-56)
‘Ali (656-61)

imam = supreme leader of the Muslim community (umma)
imama = supreme leadership, imamate

khalifa (“deputy”) = caliph
khilafa = caliphate
amir al-mu’minin (“commander of the faithful”) = caliph

misr / amsar (garrison town/s): Kufa, Basra, Fustat, Kairawan

diwan: register of Arab soldiers
sabiqa: social priority based on the time of conversion to Islam, used to determine salaries of soldiers, etc.

ahl al-dhimma: “protected people” (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians) living in conquered lands
dhimmi: a member of the ahl al-dhimma
jizya: poll tax on dhimmis

mawla (pl. mawali): non-Arab (Muslim) clients of Arab tribes

First Civil War (656-661)

-Assassination of ‘Uthman after an uprising in Kufa (656)
-‘Ali became 4th caliph

-Unresolved issue of the punishment of ‘Uthman’s assassins fueled the First Civil War

- ‘Ali challenged by Mu’awiya (governor of Syria)

‘Ali agreed to arbitration on issue of punishment

- Assassination of ‘Ali (661); Mu’awiya became caliph

Mu’awiya:

-governor of Syria

-member of Banu Umayya clan

-became caliph in 661

-established the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)
-capital: Damascus

‘Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705):

-ended the Second Civil War in 692 by force

-administrative reforms to create a centralized empire
-Arabic as official language

-monetary reforms

-establishment of a state with all necessary institutions

‘Abd al-Malik’s monetary reform:
-central issues
-standard weight
-inscriptions instead of images

Dinar (gold coin): 696-7
Dirham (silver coin): 698-9

Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), built in 691-2 on the site of the old Jewish Temple (destroyed prior to Islam)

Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705-15)
Conquest of Central Asia
Conquest of Spain


Great Mosque of Damascus, begun 705/6 by Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705-15)

Problems faced by the Umayyads in the 8th c.:

1. Dissatisfaction of the Shi’is regarding the basis of Umayyad power (believed to be illegitimate)
2. Resentment against Syria from the provinces
Resentment against Arabs by non-Arabs

749: Abbasid Revolution (led by descendents of the Prophet’s uncle ‘Abbas)
750: Establishment of Abbasid Caliphate
-new capital established by caliph al- Mansur-- Baghdad

05/12/08- Rise of Islam 1

RISE OF ISLAM-1

Islamic World (“Dar al-Islam”) up to the 9th c.
Late Antiquity
3rd to 7th centuries:
Byzantine and Sasanian Empire

Christianity, 4th – 5th c.

-Debates over the true nature of Jesus Christ (Human? Divine? Both?)
-3 main Christological positions:

-Nestorian: Human nature
-Nestorian Church (Iraq, Iran and Asia)

-Monophysite: Divine nature
-Eastern Christian Churches [Armenian, Syrian, Coptic (Egyptian)]

-Chalcedonian: Both natures united in one person
-Orthodox Church (official church of the Byz. Empire)

Sasanian Empire: 221-651
-capital: Ctesiphon
-wars with Byzantine Empire: 602-28
Dualist religions(cosmic struggle between good and evil deities):

Zoroastrianism
-teachings of Zoroaster (11th c. BC)
-state religion of the Sasanian Empire
-Ahura Mazda (supreme god, principle of good)
-Ahriman (deity responsible for evil)

Manicheism
-teachings of Mani (3rd c.)
-universal message, drawing on Christianity, Zoroastrianism, etc.
-conflict between good and evil
-missionary activities in Iran, Central Asia and Inner Asia

•Arabian society in the 6th c.

-pastoralists
-agriculturalists
-merchants

•Tribal customs instead of government
•Arabic as common language

Mecca, 19th c. view of the Haram (“holy site”) with the Ka’ba in the center

Lineage of the Prophet Muhammad

Tribe: Quraysh
Clan: Banu Hashim
570: birth
610: first revelation

622: hijra (emigration) to Medina (Yathrib)
-emergence of the Muslim community (umma)
-Constitution of Medina
-struggles against Mecca (until 630)

Ka‘ba, Haram of Mecca

Revelation of the Qur’an, 610-632:

First Revelation:

Recite (iqra’): In the name of your Lord who created
Created mankind from a clot of blood.

Recite: And your Lord is most generous
He who instructed with the pen
Instructed mankind what he knew not.

(Opening verses of Chapter 96)

Q – R – ‘ (root)
 iqra‘ : recite, read (imperative)
 Qur’an : recitation

Central message of the Qur’an:

God (Allah):
-almighty, all-knowing, eternal, omnipresent Creator
-transcendent (no associates in any form)
-One (doctrine of tawhid: Unity of God)
-merciful and compassionate
Bismillah al-rahman al-rahim (basmala)

MIDTERM GRADES

HIST 105 Fall/ 2008
MIDTERM GRADES

Öğrenci No ?/100
2007200300 72
2007100292 69
2008680127 26
2005103232 70
2007104264 61
2008207144 103
2008209084 90
2007103319 79
2007100610 75
2007101180 75
2005102629 68
2007103307 52
2005102170 90
2007102842 49
2007102770 55
2007100076 52
2007101654 66
2007103940 67
2007100424 71
2006100334 83
2007200124 55
2006101327 78
2007100154 86
2007103607 17
2007103088 63
2004100580 57
2006102785 50
2007100529 50
2003100025 64
2008300258 56
2008302195 63
2007104000 82
2006101579 75
2006104489 88
2007103694 82
2007104009 72
2007100130 101
2007102935 78
2007103760 63
2006100136 60
2007103268 75
2005200069 55
2007300061 98
2006102794 84
2007100250 56
2007101345 93
2007102521 63
2006101804 55
2008301096 74
2006100067 58
2007101927 62
2007102590 99
2004100046 14
2006102674 22
2007101987 87
2007100697 70
2007103976 94
2007100883 90
2006100205 91
2005101753 82
2005102599 75
2006102437 27
2004100019 52
2008110150 64
2007104387 88
2007104261 53
2008302123 88
2006104927 37
2007200327 68
2005300099 76
2007104378 41
2005101066 48
2007102017 72
2004100883 79
2007102065 80
2006100307 66
2007101645 71
2006103865 90
2007103613 77
2007104354 51
2005101390 69
2006104789 24
2007100112 51
2006101252 43
2007104414 66
2007104372 63
2007104375 73
2006101690 38
2004103085 44
2001102023 66
2007102728 46
2007100247 63
2006103739 78
2005103739 67
2007100703 47
2006103508 58
2007100772 73
2005103541 87
2005102362 81
2007103649 86
2007101126 53
2006102710 21
2007101492 68
2004100301 6
2007200330 63
2007101909 62
2007102671 51
2007103538 68
2005103943 84
2008300243 88
2007103247 35
2006102398 88
2006000001 89
2004200047 49
2006104891 48
2007100874 74
2007200145 53
2006104426 71
2007101966 73
2006104747 55
2007101003 76
2007103073 74
2006100823 76
2006104810 91
2003100793 60
2007103202 71
2006102143 54
2005100232 62
2005102338 24
2007100568 48
2006104012 61
2006100487 68
2007101852 53
2007103880 47
2007100418 71
2007104288 67
2007100838 90
2007103445 34
2006200330 47
2007103688 79
2007103133 97
2007102038 15
2007101429 81
2007104051 86
2005104444 55
2008302234 77
2004103757 68
2005100271 16
2007101264 45
2006100328 83
2005102458 37
2008300141 102
2007100298 38
2007100361 63
2008302213 76
2007101051 94
2006101120 51
2006101534 93
2007100670 83
2005100775 30
2007101687 85
2004200051 28
2007103784 60
2006100574 85
2008302060 58
2005102929 70
2007104186 22
2005100139 58
2007103754 70
2007103157 89
2007102275 48
2005102410 78
2006103097 34
2007101525 75
2006103160 59
2008208030 72
2007100832 80
2003102932 41
2005102986 46
2006104480 55
2008302183 76
2007103517 77
2007102752 36
2007100739 78
2007102413 46
2007100100 78
2004100085 66
2008302003 75
2005103850 60
2007103328 53
2007103058 63
2007101828 59
2007102704 51
2007200148 59
2006000100 69
2008208051 54
2006100940 79
2007103712 65
2007100778 70
2006104777 83
2007101816 56
2007103772 61
2007102902 75
2005100967 56
2007101804 71
2006103235 73
2007103292 66
2005101318 56
2007101420 88
2007104060 86
2007101315 90
2008209147 39
2007101438 60
2006104423 35
2007102914 79
2007103391 70
2008302159 90
2003100619 48
2006100970 81
2007101252 98
2007100379 64
2008207000 101
2007100223 44
2006104153 58
2007104213 33
2006102167 55
2007100688 69
2008301297 65
2007103082 71
2007100532 48
2007103403 82
2007101726 58
2007103052 83
2007101276 55
2007102734 55
2006102455 61
2007102263 63
2006100793 46
2006104312 76
2006103034 72
2007103331 54
2003102584 51
2007103925 42
2004100373 79
2006102284 81
2006104585 86
2007100850 56
2007103160 60

Arithmetic Mean: 64

P.s.: Make-up results will be announced soon.

03/12/08- Feudalism in Japan

HIST 105- FALL 2008
FEUDALISM IN JAPAN: Rise of Samurai Class

Christianity in Japan

First Map depicting Japan

Japanese version of world map

Feudalism in Medieval Europe:

• A term first used in early Modern period (17th century)
• > Latin word feodum (=fief)
• Medieval Europe political system
• Reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility
• Lord, vassals and fiefs

"Feudalism" in Japan (1):

• “Feudalism” as translation of land system in ancient China: “Houken” system
• Zhou dynasty (1046BCE-256BCE): lands symbolically given to the aristocrats by the ruler, no obligation for military service
• Qin dynasty (778BCE-206BCE): unified China and established the centralized system (Shi Hunang)

“Feudalism” in Japan (2):

• “Feudalism” as translation of Medieval European political system: “Houken” system
• “Feudalism” as translation of Early Modern Japanese social-economic system: “Houken” system

Debate on the existence of “Feudalism” in Japan during the 1950’s-60’s1):

• Starts with the establishment of Kamakura period (1185)
• Starts gradually in Nambokuchô period (14th century)
• Starts with the results of national cadastral survey (1580-90’s) by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
• No “Feudalism” exists in Japan

The Rise of the Shôen:

• After the Taika Reforms and Taihô Code (702):
• Redistribution of the land every 6 years--> 12 years (834) -->not effective -->Land owners: local magnates, Buddhist monasteries, court aristocrats, high government officials
  
• Reclamation of wastelands --> 734 government agreed to permit permanent ownership
  
• Shôen: freedom from taxation -->The right to deny government officials of agents entrance to their estates.
  

limited to monastic and shrine lands
Privileges without any official sanction to many owners of estates

Distribution of Shôen (8-10th centuries)
Later development of Shôen (12-13th centuries)

The Emergence of the Warrior Class (Samurai):

• Decline of the central government
• Police and military power-->hands of the local magnates
• 792 necessary military forces by local governors

Establishment and Supremacy of the Taira clans:

• 1167 Kiyomori appointed to dajô daijin (chancellor)…virtual dictator
• Governorships of 30 provinces, over 500 shôen
• Commerce with Sung China…building the port of Hyogo
• Ruling through the imperial court in cooperation with the cloistered emperor
• “If one is not a Taira, one is not a human being”
• “The Tale of the Heike”

Establishment of Kamakura Bakufu鎌倉幕府 (Tent Government) 1185:

• Seated in Kamakura 鎌倉 by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1185
• Removed all potential rivals: all the important members of the Taira family, his own brother Yoshitsune, his non-in law, half-brother Noriyori
• Obtained imperial sanctions for all his policies and decrees
• 1185 assumed the position of supreme constable and supreme land steward of all 66 provinces
• Proprietary rights over the lands her formerly held in Kantô region: appointed the governors from among his followers
• Acquired the lands formerly held by the Tairas (500 shôen)
• 1192 Yoritomo was appointed seiitaishôgun (Supreme General): official military commander-in-chief

Bakufu (tent government) administrative system:

• Not to replace the imperial government in Kyoto
• To manage the Minamoto’s “family” affairs:

1) Office of Samurai:promotions and demotions fo the samurai
2) Administrative office:managed administrative, legislative, and lega affaires
3)Court of Appeals: judical bord to settle civil disputes --> employed members of the Kyoto aristocracy

The constables and the land stewards守護と地頭:

• The constables: military and police authority
• When summoned by the shôgun, duty to come to his aid with his warriors
• The land stewards: (at first) authorized to collect taxes from all the estates whether public or private
• (after the opposition by the Shôen owners in Kyoto) tax-collecting power was limited to public domains
• Gradually increased their authority over the Shôen not owned by Kamakura-> By the end of Kamakura period many of them acquired proprietary rights over the Shôen
• …emergence of a new landholding class

The Jôei Code 御成敗式目（貞永式目）1232:

• The first code by the Warrior’s class
• Issued by Hôjô Yasutoki 北条泰時(1183-1242)
• Customary practices governed the relationships among the the military elements (rather a set of guidelines of jurists)
• Consisting of 51 articles customary law, property rights, land tenure, inheritance, duties and functions of officials, criminal punishments
• Right of women to inherit property and serve as vassals
• Three categories of people: Samurai, commoners and slaves
• Established a basis for the feudal laws and practices of subsequent period
• Yasutoki’s another achievement: Establishment of a council of state (1226) consisted of 11 important military chieftains

“Feudalism” in Japan (3):

• Reciprocal military obligations between warlords (shôgun) and vassals
• “On (favors)” and services (12th century)
• Authorized right of tax collecting
• Gradually acquired the authorities
• Emergence of a new landholding class and military leaders: daimyô (15th century)
• Baku-han system in Edo period (1603-1868)
• Daimyôs as vassals of shôgun

Mongol Invasions:

• 1274 against northern Kyushu: center of Sino-Japan trades
• 1281 second attack with a force of 140,000 men: Seven weeks of fighting
• Results: 1- Successfully repelled 2- No fruits for the victory-->no reward for the services